Curriculum
- 6 Sections
- 481 Lessons
- 10 Weeks
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- Ancient Indian History114
- 1.11.1 Sources – Archaeology
- 1.21.2 Sources – Literacy
- 1.31.3 Sources – Foreign account
- 1.41.4 Sources – Approaches to the Study of Early Indian History
- 1.51.5 Sources – Ancient Indian Historiography
- 1.61.6 Sources – Land Ownership in Ancient India
- 1.72.1 Pre‐history and Proto‐history – Geographical Factors
- 1.82.2 Pre‐history and Proto‐history – Paleolithic Period: Hunting and Gathering
- 1.92.3 Pre‐history and Proto‐history – Mesolithic Period: Hunting and Gathering
- 1.102.4 Pre‐history and Proto‐history – Mesolithic Art: Rock Paintings
- 1.112.5 Pre‐history and Proto‐history – Beginning of Agriculture in Neolithic and Chalcolithic
- 1.122.6 Pre‐history and Proto‐history – Chalcolithic Pottery as a Source of History
- 1.133.1 Indus Valley Civilization – Indus Valley Civilisation: Origin
- 1.143.2 Indus Valley Civilization – Indus Valley Civilisation: Date and Extent
- 1.153.3 Indus Valley Civilization – Indus Valley Civilization: Characteristics and Significance
- 1.163.4 Indus Valley Civilization – Indus Valley Civilization: Art and Crafts
- 1.173.5 Indus Valley Civilization – Indus Valley Civilization: Architecture
- 1.183.6 Indus Valley Civilization – Subsistence Pattern of Harappan Civilisation
- 1.193.7 Indus Valley Civilization – Harappan Religious and Funerary Beliefs
- 1.203.8 Indus Valley Civilization – Harappan Trade
- 1.213.9 Indus Valley Civilization – Political System of Harappa Civilization
- 1.223.10 Indus Valley Civilization – Harappan Script
- 1.233.11 Indus Valley Civilization – Seals of Harappan Civilization: Seals and Sealings
- 1.243.12 Indus Valley Civilization – Decline and Survival of Indus Valley Civilisation
- 1.254.1 Megalithic Cultures – Megalithic Culture
- 1.265.1 Aryans and Vedic Period – Expansions of Aryans in India
- 1.275.2 Aryans and Vedic Period – Vedic Period
- 1.285.3 Aryans and Vedic Period – Vedic Literature: Religious and Philosophic Literature
- 1.295.4 Aryans and Vedic Period – Transformation from Rig Vedic Period to Later Vedic Period
- 1.305.5 Aryans and Vedic Period – Later Vedic: Evolution of Monarchy and Varna system
- 1.316.1 Period of Mahajanapadas – Formation of States (Mahajanapadas): Republic and Monarchies
- 1.326.2 Period of Mahajanapadas – Rise of Urban Centres; Trade routes; Economic Growth
- 1.336.3 Period of Mahajanapadas – Introduction of Coinage
- 1.346.4 Period of Mahajanapadas – Spread of Buddhism
- 1.356.5 Period of Mahajanapadas – Spread of Jainism
- 1.366.6 Period of Mahajanapadas – Similarities & Differences between Jainism and Buddhism
- 1.376.7 Period of Mahajanapadas – Rise of Magadha Empire and Nandas
- 1.386.8 Period of Mahajanapadas – Iranian and Macedonian Invasions and Their Impact
- 1.397.1 Mauryan Empire – Maurya Empire
- 1.407.2 Mauryan Empire – Mauryan Empire: Art, Architecture and Sculpture
- 1.417.3 Mauryan Empire – Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
- 1.427.4 Mauryan Empire – Sunga Dynasty
- 1.437.5 Mauryan Empire – Kanva Dynasty (75 BCE – 30 BCE)
- 1.448.1 Post-Mauryan Period: Contact with Outside World
- 1.458.2 Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western Kshatrapas
- 1.468.3 Post-Mauryan: Growth of Urban Centres, Economy, Coinage
- 1.478.4 Post-Mauryan Period: Development of Religions
- 1.488.5 Post-Mauryan Period: Society (Social Conditions)
- 1.498.6 Post-Mauryan Period: Literature and Science
- 1.508.7 Post-Mauryan Period: Art, Architecture, Culture
- 1.519.1 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Kharavela Dynasty
- 1.529.2 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – The Satavahanas
- 1.539.3 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas
- 1.549.4 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Economy of the Sangam Age
- 1.559.5 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Social Development
- 1.569.6 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Literature and Culture
- 1.579.7 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Administration
- 1.589.8 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Economy, Land Grants
- 1.599.9 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Coinage
- 1.609.10 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Trade Guilds and Urban Centres
- 1.619.11 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Buddhist Centres
- 1.629.12 Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India – Sangam Age: Art and Architecture
- 1.6310.1 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Guptas: Gupta Empire
- 1.6410.2 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Polity and Administration of Gupta Empire
- 1.6510.3 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Guptas Society: Caste system, Position of Women
- 1.6610.4 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Guptas: Economic conditions
- 1.6710.5 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Coinage of the Gupta Period
- 1.6810.6 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Land Grants in Gupta period
- 1.6910.7 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Guptas: Decline of Urban Centres
- 1.7010.8 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Guptas: Indian feudalism
- 1.7110.9 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Guptas: Education and Educational Institutions (Nalanda, Vikramshila and Vallabhi)
- 1.7210.10 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Guptas: Literature, Scientific Literature
- 1.7310.11 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Gupta Period: Art and Architecture
- 1.7410.12 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Paintings of Gupta period
- 1.7510.13 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Ajanta Arts
- 1.7610.14 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Vakataka Dynasty
- 1.7710.15 Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas – Vardhana Dynasty: Harshavardhana
- 1.7811.1 Regional States during Gupta Era – Kadamba Dynasty (345–540 CE)
- 1.7911.2 Regional States during Gupta Era – Pallava Dynasty
- 1.8011.3 Regional States during Gupta Era – The Chalukyas of Badami (Badami Chalukyas)
- 1.8111.4 Regional States during Gupta Era – Regional States during Gupta Era: Polity and Administration
- 1.8211.5 Regional States during Gupta Era – Growth of Vaishnava and Saiva religions, Tamil Bhakit Movement
- 1.8311.6 Regional States during Gupta Era – Shankaracharya and Vedanta
- 1.8411.7 Regional States during Gupta Era – Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita
- 1.8511.8 Regional States during Gupta Era – Palas: Polity and administration
- 1.8611.9 Regional States during Gupta Era – Rashtrakutas: Polity and administration
- 1.8711.10 Regional States during Gupta Era – Senas: Polity and administration
- 1.8811.11 Regional States during Gupta Era – Paramaras: Polity and administration
- 1.8911.12 Regional States during Gupta Era – Palas: Cultural Aspects
- 1.9011.13 Regional States during Gupta Era – Rashtrakutas: Cultural Aspects
- 1.9111.14 Regional States during Gupta Era – Arab Conquest of Sind
- 1.9211.15 Regional States during Gupta Era – Albiruni’s India
- 1.9311.16 Regional States during Gupta Era – Chalukyas of Kalyani (Western Chalukyas)
- 1.9411.17 Regional States during Gupta Era – Cholas: Polity and Administration
- 1.9511.18 Regional States during Gupta Era – Hoysalas : Polity and Administration
- 1.9611.19 Regional States during Gupta Era – Pandyas: Polity and Administration
- 1.9711.20 Regional States during Gupta Era – Chola: Local Government
- 1.9811.21 Regional States during Gupta Era – Chola: Art and Architecture
- 1.9911.22 Regional States during Gupta Era – Hoyasala: Art and Architecture
- 1.10011.23 Regional States during Gupta Era – Pandyas: Art and Architecture
- 1.10111.24 Regional States during Gupta Era – Cholas : Economy, Society, Education and Literature
- 1.10211.25 Regional States during Gupta Era – Pandyas: Economy, Society, Education and Literature
- 1.10312.1 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Themes in Early Indian Cultural History: Languages and Texts
- 1.10412.2 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Major Stages in the evolution of Art and Architecture
- 1.10512.3 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Mathura School of Arts
- 1.10612.4 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Gandhara school of Arts
- 1.10712.5 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Amaravati School of Arts
- 1.10812.6 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Orthodox & Unorthodox Systems of Indian Philosophy
- 1.10912.7 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Six Schools of Indian Philosophy
- 1.11012.8 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Unorthodox Schools: Ajivika and Charvaka School
- 1.11112.9 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Major Philosophical Thinkers and Schools: Tantricism
- 1.11212.10 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Major Philosophical Thinkers and Schools: Shaktism
- 1.11312.11 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Money lending in Ancient India
- 1.11412.12 Themes in Early Indian Cultural History – Slavery in Ancient India
- Medieval Indian History128
- 2.11.1 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Major Political Developments
- 2.21.2 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Origin and the Rise of Rajputs
- 2.31.3 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Cholas: Administration, Village economy and Society
- 2.41.4 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Indian Feudalism in Early Medieval Period
- 2.51.5 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Agrarian Economy in Early Medieval India
- 2.61.6 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Urban Settlements in Early Medieval India
- 2.71.8 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Society in Early Medieval India
- 2.81.7 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Trade and Commerce in Early Medieval India
- 2.91.9 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Condition of Women (Early Medieval India, 750-1200)
- 2.101.10 Early Medieval India, 750‐1200 – Indian Science and Technology in Early Medieval India
- 2.112.1 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Shnkaracharya and Vedanta; Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita
- 2.122.2 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Shnkaracharya and Vedanta; Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita
- 2.132.3 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Madhvacharya and Brahma Mimansa
- 2.142.5 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Islam and its arrival in India
- 2.152.6 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Sufi Movements
- 2.162.8 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Growth of Tamil Literature
- 2.172.7 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Literature in Sanskrit
- 2.182.9 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Literature in the newly developing Languages
- 2.192.10 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Kalhan’s Rajtarangini
- 2.202.12 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Odisha Temple Architecture (Early Medieval)
- 2.212.11 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Albiruni’s India
- 2.222.14 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Khajuraho Temple Architecture (Early Medieval)
- 2.232.13 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Kashmir Temple Architecture (Early Medieval)
- 2.242.4 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Tamil Devotional Cult, Growth of Bhakti, Bhakti Movement
- 2.252.15 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Temple Architecture: Temples in Gujarat and Rajasthan
- 2.262.16 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Temple Architecture in South India
- 2.272.17 Cultural Traditions in India, 750‐1200 – Painting: Cultural Tradition in india (750- 1200)
- 2.283.1 The Thirteenth Century – Mahmud of Ghazni (Mahmud Ghaznavi)
- 2.293.3 The Thirteenth Century – The Ghurian Invasions – Factors behind Ghurian Success
- 2.303.2 The Thirteenth Century – Muhammad Ghori (Muhammad of Ghor)
- 2.313.4 The Thirteenth Century – Foundation of Delhi Sultanate: Rule of Iltutmish
- 2.323.5 The Thirteenth Century – Foundation of Delhi Sultanate: Rule of Balban
- 2.334.1 The Fourteenth Century – The Khalji Revolution
- 2.344.2 The Fourteenth Century – Alauddin Khalji: Conquests and Territorial expansion, Agrarian and Economic Measures
- 2.354.3 The Fourteenth Century – Muhammad Tughluq: Major Projects, Agrarian measures, Bureaucracy
- 2.364.5 The Fourteenth Century – Shams Siraj Afif’s Account: Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi
- 2.374.4 The Fourteenth Century – Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian Measures, Achievements in Civil Engineering and Public Works, Decline of the Sultanate
- 2.384.6 The Fourteenth Century – Foreign Contact: Ibn Battuta’s accounts
- 2.394.7 The Fourteenth Century – The Mangol threat to India during Sultanate period
- 2.405.1 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Government and Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
- 2.415.2 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Agricultural Production
- 2.425.3 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Rise of Urban Economy and Non-Agricultural Production
- 2.435.4 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Trade and Commerce
- 2.445.5 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Composition of rural society, Ruling classes
- 2.455.6 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Town dwellers, Women, Religious classes, Caste and Slavery
- 2.465.7 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Lekhapaddhati as a Source of History
- 2.475.8 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Sultanate Architecture and New structural forms in 13th & 14th Centuries
- 2.485.9 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Persian Literature, Literature in the regional languages of North India, Literature in the languages of South India
- 2.495.10 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Painting, Music, Evolution of Composite Culture
- 2.505.11 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Amir Khusrau and his Contribution
- 2.515.12 Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries – Educational development during Sultanate Period
- 2.526.1 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Bengal
- 2.536.2 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Gujarat
- 2.546.3 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Malwa
- 2.556.4 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Lodis
- 2.566.5 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Kashmir (Zainul Abedin)
- 2.576.6 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Vijayanagara Empire: Politics, State, Society and the Economy
- 2.586.7 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Society in Vijaynagar Empire
- 2.596.8 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Bahmani Kingdom (Bahmanids)
- 2.606.9 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Portuguese Colonial Enterprise
- 2.616.10 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Central Asian Politics and the advance of Babar towards India
- 2.626.11 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Mughal Empire, First Phase: Babur
- 2.636.12 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Mughal Empire, First Phase: Humayun
- 2.646.13 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – The Sur Empire: Sher Shah’s Administration
- 2.656.14 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Tamil Devotional Cult, Growth of Bhakti, Bhakti Movement
- 2.666.15 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐Political Developments and Economy – Sufi Movements
- 2.677.1 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐ Society and culture – Provincial Architecture: Bengal and Jaunpur
- 2.687.2 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐ Society and culture – Provincial Architecture: Gujarat
- 2.697.3 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐ Society and culture – Provincial Architecture: Deccan
- 2.707.4 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐ Society and culture – Malwa Architecture
- 2.717.5 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐ Society and culture – Rana Kumbha’s Cultural Contribution
- 2.727.6 The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century‐ Society and culture – Architecture, Culture, Literature and Arts in Vijayanagara Empire
- 2.738.1 Akbar – Conquest and Consolidation of Empire
- 2.748.2 Akbar – Rajput Policy of Akbar
- 2.758.3 Akbar – State under Akbar: Establishment of Jagir & Mansab Systems
- 2.768.4 Akbar – Land Revenue System under Akbar
- 2.778.5 Akbar – Akbar’s Religious Views and Social Reforms
- 2.788.6 Akbar – Foreign Policy of Akbar
- 2.799.1 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Mughal Administration
- 2.809.2 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Mughal Land Revenue System
- 2.819.3 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Rajput Policy of Akbar
- 2.829.4 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Rajput Policy of Jahangir
- 2.839.5 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Religious Policies of Jahangir
- 2.849.8 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Religious Policies of Aurangzeb
- 2.859.6 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Religious Policies of Shahjahan
- 2.869.9 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Rajput Policy of Aurangzeb
- 2.879.7 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – War of Succession by Shahjahan’s Sons: Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh
- 2.889.10 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Revolts against Aurangzeb
- 2.899.11 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Nature of Mughal State
- 2.909.12 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Mughal Theory of Sovereignty
- 2.919.13 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Foreign Policy of Mughals in Northwest
- 2.929.14 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Deccan Policy of Mughals
- 2.939.15 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Late Seventeenth-century Crisis and the Revolts
- 2.949.16 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Peasant Revolts of Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs and Marathas
- 2.959.17 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – The Ahom Kingdom
- 2.969.18 Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century – Shivaji and The Early Maratha Kingdom
- 2.9710.1 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Population in Mughal India
- 2.9810.2 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Fiscal and Monetary System, Prices in Mughal India
- 2.9910.3 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Agriculture Production in Mughal India
- 2.10010.4 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Craft Production in Mughal Period (16th and 17th Century)
- 2.10110.5 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Towns
- 2.10210.6 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Commerce with Europe through Dutch, English and French Companies
- 2.10310.7 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Indian Mercantile Classes, Banking, Insurance and Credit Systems in Mughal India
- 2.10410.8 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Condition of Peasants in the 16th and 17th Centuries
- 2.10510.9 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Potentiality of Emergence of Capitalism in Mughal India
- 2.10610.10 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Condition of Women in the 16th and 17th Centuries
- 2.10710.11 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Evolution of the Sikh Community and the Khalsa Panth
- 2.10810.12 Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries – Bernier’s Account of India
- 2.10911.1 Culture during Mughal Empire – Persian Histories and other Literature (Mughal India)
- 2.11011.2 Culture during Mughal Empire – Hindi and Religious Literatures in Mughal India
- 2.11111.3 Culture during Mughal Empire – Mughal Architecture
- 2.11211.4 Culture during Mughal Empire – Mughal Painting
- 2.11311.5 Culture during Mughal Empire – Rajput Painting
- 2.11411.6 Culture during Mughal Empire – Provincial Architecture: Bijapur
- 2.11511.7 Culture during Mughal Empire – Provincial Architecture: Kashmir
- 2.11611.8 Culture during Mughal Empire – Pahari School of Painting
- 2.11711.9 Culture during Mughal Empire – Provincial Painting: Deccan Painting
- 2.11811.10 Culture during Mughal Empire – Provincial Painting: Patna Kalam Painting
- 2.11911.11 Culture during Mughal Empire – Classical Music in Mughal India
- 2.12011.12 Culture during Mughal Empire – Science and Technology in Mughal India
- 2.12112.1 The Eighteenth Century – Factors for the decline of the Mughal Empire
- 2.12212.2 The Eighteenth Century – Regional Principalities: Nizam’s Deccan, Bengal, Awadh
- 2.12312.3 The Eighteenth Century – Maratha Ascendancy under the Peshwas
- 2.12412.4 The Eighteenth Century – The Maratha Fiscal and Financial System
- 2.12512.5 The Eighteenth Century – Nature of Political System of Marathas
- 2.12612.6 The Eighteenth Century – Emergence of Afgan Power
- 2.12712.7 The Eighteenth Century – Third Battle of Panipat
- 2.12812.8 The Eighteenth Century – State of Politics, Culture and Economy on the eve of the British Conquest
- Modern Indian History111
- 3.01.1 European Penetration into India – The Early European Settlements: The Portuguese in India
- 3.11.2 European Penetration into India – The Early European Settlements: The Dutch in India
- 3.21.3 European Penetration into India – The Early European Settlements: The English in India
- 3.31.4 European Penetration into India – The Early European Settlements: The French in India
- 3.41.5 European Penetration into India – The Carnatic Wars: First, Second, and Third Carnatic Wars
- 3.51.6 European Penetration into India – Conflict between the English and the Nawabs of Bengal
- 3.62.1 British Expansion in India – British Expansion in India: Bengal
- 3.72.2 British Expansion in India – British Expansion in India: Mysore
- 3.82.3 British Expansion in India – British Expansion in India: The Marathas
- 3.92.4 British Expansion in India – British Expansion in India: The Punjab
- 3.103.1 Early Structure of the British Raj – The Regulating Act of 1773: From Diarchy to direct control
- 3.113.3 Early Structure of the British Raj – The Pitt’s India Act (1784)
- 3.123.4 Early Structure of the British Raj – Charter Act of 1793
- 3.133.5 Early Structure of the British Raj – The Charter Act of 1813
- 3.143.6 Early Structure of the British Raj – The Charter Act of 1833
- 3.153.7 Early Structure of the British Raj – The Charter Act of 1853
- 3.163.2 Early Structure of the British Raj – The Act of Settlement 1781
- 3.173.8 Early Structure of the British Raj – The English Utilitarian and India
- 3.183.9 Early Structure of the British Raj – British Paramountcy over the Princely States
- 3.194.1 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Permanent Settlement: Land Revenue Systems in British India
- 3.204.4 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Commercialization of Agriculture during British Rule in India
- 3.214.5 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Rise of landless agrarian labourers
- 3.224.2 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Ryotwari Settlement: Land Revenue System in British India
- 3.234.6 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Impoverishment of the Rural Society under British Rule
- 3.244.9 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Drain of wealth: Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule
- 3.254.3 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Mahalwari Settlement: Land Revenue System in British India
- 3.264.10 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Economic transformation of India
- 3.274.7 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Deindustrialisation & Decline of traditional crafts
- 3.284.11 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Railroad and Communication Network including Telegraph and Postal Services
- 3.294.8 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Rise of Modern Industries in British India
- 3.304.12 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – Famine and Poverty in the Rural interior
- 3.314.13 Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule – European Business Enterprise and its limitations
- 3.325.1 Social and Cultural Developments – The State of indigenous education, its dislocation
- 3.335.2 Social and Cultural Developments – Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
- 3.345.3 Social and Cultural Developments – The Introduction of Western Education in India
- 3.355.4 Social and Cultural Developments – The Rise of Press, Literature and Public Opinion
- 3.365.5 Social and Cultural Developments – The Rise of Modern Vernacular Literature
- 3.375.6 Social and Cultural Developments – Progress of Science in Colonial India
- 3.385.7 Social and Cultural Developments – Christian missionary activities in India
- 3.396.1 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Movement) & Devendranath Tagore
- 3.406.2 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
- 3.416.3 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – The Young Bengal Movement
- 3.426.4 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Arya Samaj & Dayanada Saraswati
- 3.436.5 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Theosophical Society
- 3.446.6 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Ramakrishna Movement and Vivekananda
- 3.456.7 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Sikh and Parsi Reform Movements
- 3.466.8 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – The Social reform movements in India including Sati, Widow remarriage, Child marriage
- 3.476.9 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – The Contribution of Indian Renaissance to the growth of Modern India
- 3.486.10 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Islamic revivalism: The Faraizi Movement
- 3.496.11 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Islamic Revivalism: The Wahabi Movement
- 3.506.12 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Islamic Revivalism: The Deoband Movement
- 3.516.13 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Islamic revivalism: Ahmedia Movement
- 3.526.14 Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas – Aligarh Movement
- 3.537.1 Indian Response to British Rule – Rangpur Dhing Rebellion (1783)
- 3.547.2 Indian Response to British Rule – Kol Rebellion (1832)
- 3.557.3 Indian Response to British Rule – Mopla Rebellion of 1921 in Malabar
- 3.567.4 Indian Response to British Rule – Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)
- 3.577.5 Indian Response to British Rule – Indigo Revolt (1859-60)
- 3.587.6 Indian Response to British Rule – Deccan Uprising (Deccan Riots): 1875
- 3.597.7 Indian Response to British Rule – Munda Rebellion (Ulgulan Movement): [1899-1900]
- 3.607.8 Indian Response to British Rule – Pabna Revolt (1873–76) – Pabna Peasant Uprising
- 3.617.9 Indian Response to British Rule – The Great Revolt of 1857
- 3.627.10 Indian Response to British Rule – The Shift in the Character of Peasant Uprisings in the Post-1857 Period
- 3.637.11 Indian Response to British Rule – The Peasant Movements of the 1920s and 1930s
- 3.648.1 Early Indian Nationalism – Factors leading to the birth of Indian Nationalism
- 3.658.2 Early Indian Nationalism – Political Association before Indian National Congress
- 3.668.3 Early Indian Nationalism – The Foundation of Indian National Congress
- 3.678.4 Early Indian Nationalism – Programme and Objectives of Early Congress
- 3.688.5 Early Indian Nationalism – Safety-valve thesis relating to the birth of Congress
- 3.698.6 Early Indian Nationalism – The Social Composition of early Congress Leadership
- 3.708.7 Early Indian Nationalism – The Moderates and Extremists
- 3.718.8 Early Indian Nationalism – The Partition of Bengal (1905)
- 3.728.9 Early Indian Nationalism – The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal
- 3.738.10 Early Indian Nationalism – Surat Split of INC, 1907
- 3.748.11 Early Indian Nationalism – The Beginning of Revolutionary Extremism in India
- 3.758.12 Early Indian Nationalism – The Home Rule Movement (1915–1916)
- 3.768.13 Early Indian Nationalism – Lucknow Pact, 1916
- 3.779.1 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Philosophy and Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi
- 3.789.2 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Rise of Gandhi and Early Actvism
- 3.799.3 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Khilafat Movement and Non-Cooperation Movement
- 3.809.4 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – The Swarajists and No Changers
- 3.819.5 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Bardoli Satyagraha, 1928
- 3.829.6 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Simon Commission
- 3.839.7 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – The Nehru Report, Delhi Proposal and Jinnah’s Fourteen Demands
- 3.849.8 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – The Civil Disobedience Movement
- 3.859.9 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Round Table Conferences
- 3.869.10 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Communal Award and Poona Pact
- 3.879.11 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Nationalism and the Peasant Movements
- 3.889.12 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Nationalism and Working Class Movements
- 3.899.13 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Praja Mandal Movements in Princely States
- 3.909.14 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Women in Indian Politics (1885-1947)
- 3.919.15 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – The Election of 1937 and formation of Congress Ministries
- 3.929.16 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – August Offer & Individual Satyagraha
- 3.939.17 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Cripps Mission
- 3.949.18 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – Quit India Movement (1942-1944)
- 3.959.19 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – C. R. formula or Rajaji Formula (1944)
- 3.969.20 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – The Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference 1945
- 3.979.21 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – INA Trial and RIN Mutiny
- 3.989.22 Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism; Gandhian Era – The Cabinet Mission Plan
- 3.9910.1 Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India between 1858 and 1935 – ViceRoy’s Executive Council & Imperial Legislative Council
- 3.10010.2 Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India between 1858 and 1935 – The Government of India Act 1858
- 3.10110.3 Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India between 1858 and 1935 – The Indian Councils Act 1861
- 3.10210.4 Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India between 1858 and 1935 – The Indian Councils Act 1892
- 3.10310.5 Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India between 1858 and 1935 – Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909 (Indian Councils Act 1909)
- 3.10410.6 Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India between 1858 and 1935 – Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms & Government of India Act, 1919
- 3.10510.7 Constitutional Developments in the Colonial India between 1858 and 1935 – The Government of India Act 1935
- 3.10611.1 Other strands in the National Movement – The Revolutionaries: Bengal, Punjab, Maharashtra, UP, Madras Presidency, Outside India
- 3.10611.2 Other strands in the National Movement – Transfer of Power & Independence
- 3.10611.3 Other strands in the National Movement – The Left; Left within the Congress: Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Congress Socialist Party; Communist Party of India, Other Left Parties
- 3.10612.1 Politics of Separatism – Strategy and Ideologies of the Indian National Movement
- 3.10612.2 Politics of Separatism – Politics of Separatism; Communalism and the Politics of Partition
- Post-Independence Indian History14
- 5.11.1 Consolidation as a Nation – Nehru’s Foreign Policy
- 5.21.2 Consolidation as a Nation – India and her Neighbours (1947-1964)
- 5.31.3 Consolidation as a Nation – The Linguistic Reorganisation of States
- 5.41.4 Consolidation as a Nation – Regionalism and Regional Inequality
- 5.51.5 Consolidation as a Nation – Integration of Princely States
- 5.61.6 Consolidation as a Nation – Backward Castes in Post-colonial Electoral Politics
- 5.71.7 Consolidation as a Nation – Question of National Language
- 5.82.1 Caste and Ethnicity after 1947- Backward Castes in Post-colonial Electoral Politics
- 5.92.2 Caste and Ethnicity after 1947- Tribes in Post-colonial Electoral Politics
- 5.102.3 Caste and Ethnicity after 1947- Dalit Movements After 1947 (Post Independent India)
- 5.113.1 Economic development and political Change – Land Reforms in Post-Colonial India
- 5.123.2 Economic development and political Change – Politics of Planning and Rural Reconstruction
- 5.133.3 Economic development and political Change – Ecology and Environmental Policy in Post-Colonial India
- 5.143.4 Economic development and political Change – Progress of Science in Post-independent India
- World History89
- 6.01.1 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Enlightenment & Roots of Enlightenment
- 6.11.2 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Major ideas of Enlightenment: Kant
- 6.21.3 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Major ideas of Enlightenment: Rousseau
- 6.31.4 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Enlightened Despotism/ Enlightened Absolutism
- 6.41.5 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Developments and Legacy of Enlightenment
- 6.51.6 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Spread of Enlightenment in the Colonies
- 6.61.7 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Rise of Socialist Ideas upto Marx
- 6.71.8 Enlightenment and Modern ideas – Spread of Marxian Socialism
- 6.82.1 Origins of Modern Politics – Origins of Modern Politics: European State System
- 6.92.2 Origins of Modern Politics – American Revolution
- 6.102.3 Origins of Modern Politics – Causes of the American Revolution
- 6.112.4 Origins of Modern Politics – Effects of the American Revolution
- 6.122.5 Origins of Modern Politics – American Constitution & It’s Main Features
- 6.132.6 Origins of Modern Politics – The Congress of Vienna 1814–1815
- 6.142.7 Origins of Modern Politics – French Revolution and it’s Causes (1789-1815)
- 6.152.8 Origins of Modern Politics – French Revolution: National Assembly 1789-91
- 6.162.9 Origins of Modern Politics – French Revolution: Legislative Assembly 1791-92
- 6.172.10 Origins of Modern Politics – French Revolution: National Convention (1792-1795)
- 6.182.11 Origins of Modern Politics – Nature of French Revolution
- 6.192.12 Origins of Modern Politics – French Revolution: The Consulate (1799-1804)
- 6.202.13 Origins of Modern Politics – Causes of the Excesses of the French Revolution
- 6.212.14 Origins of Modern Politics – American Civil War and Abolition of Slavery
- 6.222.15 Origins of Modern Politics – Causes of American Civil War
- 6.232.16 Origins of Modern Politics – British Democratic Politics 1815-1850: Parliamentary Reformers
- 6.242.17 Origins of Modern Politics – British Democratic Politics, 1815-1850: Free Traders
- 6.252.18 Origins of Modern Politics – British Democratic Politics 1815-1850: Chartists
- 6.263.1 Industrialization – English Industrial Revolution: Causes and Impact on Society
- 6.273.2 Industrialization – Industrialization in USA
- 6.283.3 Industrialization – Industrialization in Germany
- 6.293.4 Industrialization – Industrialisation in Russia
- 6.303.5 Industrialization – Industrialization in Japan
- 6.313.6 Industrialization – Industrialisation and Globalisation
- 6.324.1 Nation‐State System – Emergence of Nation State System
- 6.334.2 Nation‐State System – Rise of Nationalism in 19th Century (Nation State)
- 6.344.3 Nation‐State System – Eastern Question: Rise and it’s Development
- 6.354.4 Nation‐State System – Eastern Question: Crimean War
- 6.364.5 Nation‐State System – Eastern Question: From Treaty of Paris to Treaty of Berlin
- 6.374.6 Nation‐State System – Nationalism: State-building in Germany
- 6.384.7 Nation‐State System – Nationalism: State-building in Italy
- 6.394.8 Nation‐State System – Unification of Italy
- 6.404.9 Nation‐State System – Comparison between Italian Unification and German Unification
- 6.415.1 Imperialism and Colonialism – Imperialism and Colonialism: South-East Asia
- 6.425.2 Imperialism and Colonialism – Imperialism and Colonialism: Latin America
- 6.435.3 Imperialism and Colonialism – Imperialism and Colonialism: South Africa
- 6.445.4 Imperialism and Colonialism – Imperialism and Colonialism: Australia
- 6.455.5 Imperialism and Colonialism – Imperialism and Free Trade: Rise of Neo-imperialism
- 6.465.6 Imperialism and Colonialism – Imperialism and Colonialism: The Great Game
- 6.476.1 Revolution and Counter‐Revolution – 19th Century European revolutions
- 6.486.2 Revolution and Counter‐Revolution – The Russian Revolution of 1917-21
- 6.496.3 Revolution and Counter‐Revolution – Nazi Counter-Revolution: Germany
- 6.506.4 Revolution and Counter‐Revolution – Fascist Counter-Revolution: Italy
- 6.516.5 Revolution and Counter‐Revolution – Chinese Revolution
- 6.527.1 World Wars – World War I: The world in 1914
- 6.537.2 World Wars – World War I: Events Leading To the Outbreak Of War
- 6.547.3 World Wars – World War I: Causes Of the World War I
- 6.557.4 World Wars – World War I: Events And Character of the World War I
- 6.567.5 World Wars – World War I: Impact of the World War I
- 6.577.6 World Wars – Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles
- 6.587.7 World Wars – World War I: League of Nations
- 6.597.8 World Wars – International Relations Between Two World Wars
- 6.607.9 World Wars – Interwar Period: Mussolini’s Foreign Policy
- 6.617.10 World Wars – Interwar Period: Hitler’s foreign Policy
- 6.627.11 World Wars – Interwar Period: The Policy of Appeasement
- 6.637.12 World Wars – Munich Agreement to Outbreak of the World War II
- 6.647.13 World Wars – World War II
- 6.658.1 The World after World War II – Emergence of Two Power Blocs (World after World War II)
- 6.668.2 The World after World War II – Emergence of two Power Blocs: Beginnings of the Cold War
- 6.678.3 The World after World War II – Emergence of two Power Blocs: Thaw and Escalation
- 6.688.4 The World after World War II – Emergence of two Power Blocs: Confrontation through détente
- 6.698.5 The World after World War II – Emergence of Third World and Non-alignment
- 6.708.6 The World after World War II – UNO and the Global disputes
- 6.718.7 The World after World War II – Conflict in Middle East
- 6.729.1 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Liberation from Colonial Rule: Latin America
- 6.739.2 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Liberation from Colonial Rule: Arab World-Egypt
- 6.749.3 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Liberation from Colonial Rule: South Africa
- 6.759.4 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Decolonisation of Africa
- 6.769.5 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Decolonization of Algeria
- 6.779.6 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Colonisation and Decolonisation: Vietnam
- 6.789.7 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Colonisation and Decolonisation: Indonesia
- 6.799.8 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Colonisation and Decolonisation: Malaya
- 6.809.9 Liberation from Colonial Rule – Colonisation and Decolonisation of South-East Asia
- 6.8110.1 Decolonization and Underdevelopment –
- 6.8210.2 Decolonization and Underdevelopment –
- 6.8311.1 Unification of Europe –
- 6.8411.2 Unification of Europe –
- 6.8512.1 Disintegration of Soviet Union and the Rise of the Unipolar World –
- 6.8512.2 Disintegration of Soviet Union and the Rise of the Unipolar World –
- 6.8512.3 Disintegration of Soviet Union and the Rise of the Unipolar World –
- 6.8512.4 Disintegration of Soviet Union and the Rise of the Unipolar World –
- History Optional Mapping25
- 7.11 Palaeolithic Sites in India
- 7.22 Mesolithic Sites in India
- 7.33 Neolithic Sites in India
- 7.44 Early Harappan Sites
- 7.55 Harappan Sites
- 7.66 Late Harappan Sites
- 7.77 Chalcolithic Sites in India
- 7.88 Megalithic Sites In India
- 7.99 Painted Grey Ware Sites in India
- 7.1010 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Sites
- 7.1111 Ancient Ports of India
- 7.1212 Ancient Cave Sites in India
- 7.1313 Ancient Education Centres of India
- 7.1414 Temple Sites in India
- 7.1515 Buddhist Sites in India
- 7.1616 Ancient Jain Sites
- 7.1717 Ancient Capital Cities of India
- 7.1818 Famous Inscription Sites in India
- 7.1919 Edicts of Ashoka
- 7.2020 Ashoka’s Inscriptions for Famine Relief
- 7.2121 Ancient Mosque Sites
- 7.2222 Ancient Church Sites in india
- 7.2323 World Heritage Ancient Sites
- 7.2424 Petroglyph Sites in India
- 7.2525 Hominid Fossil Sites
2.1 Pre‐history and Proto‐history – Geographical Factors
- पूर्वइतिहास ाचा संबंध त्या कालखंडाशी आहे ज्यासाठी कोणतेही लिखित स्त्रोत नाहीत, (कारण इतिहास मुळात लिखित सामग्रीवर आधारित आहे).
- प्रागैतिहासिक स्थळे ऐतिहासिक स्थळांपेक्षा अनेक बाबतीत भिन्न आहेत.
- साधारणपणे ते प्रमुख वस्तीअवशेषांच्या स्वरूपात नसतात, तर प्रामुख्याने मानव, वनस्पती आणि प्राण्यांच्या जीवाश्मांच्या स्वरूपात असतात.
- ते पठार आणि डोंगरांच्या डोंगर उतारावर आणि जवळच्या नद्यांच्या काठावर गच्चीसह आढळतात आणि त्यात कोरडे प्राणी आणि वनस्पती ंचा समावेश आहे.
- या ठिकाणी पाषाणयुगातील असंख्य दगडी अवजारे सापडली आहेत.
- हिमपूर्व काळातील अवजारे, वनस्पती, प्राणी आणि मानव यांचे अवशेष त्या वेळच्या हवामानाचे संकेत देतात.
- प्रोटो-इतिहास:
- सिंधू संस्कृतीत ख्रिस्तपूर्व तिसऱ्या सहस्रकाच्या मध्यापर्यंत भारतात लेखनाची ओळख झाली असली तरी त्याचा उलगडा अद्याप झालेला नाही.
- त्यामुळे हडप्पा लोकांना लिहिता येत असले तरी त्यांची संस्कृती ऐतिहासिक अवस्थेत आहे.
- प्रोटोहिस्टोरिकल एखाद्या समाजात साक्षरतेचे आगमन आणि पहिल्या इतिहासकारांचे लेखन यांच्यातील संक्रमण काळाचा देखील संदर्भ देऊ शकते.
- प्रोटो-हिस्ट्री हा पूर्वइतिहास आणि इतिहास यांच्यातील कालखंड मानला जातो ज्यादरम्यान एखाद्या संस्कृतीचा किंवा संस्कृतीचा अद्याप लेखन विकसित झालेला नाही, परंतु इतर संस्कृतींनी त्यांच्या स्वतःच्या लेखनात त्याचे अस्तित्व आधीच नोंदवले आहे.
- हेच चाल्कोलिथिक किंवा तांबे-पाषाणयुगातील संस्कृतींच्या बाबतीत आहे ज्यांचे लेखन नव्हते. इ.स.पू. तिसर् या शतकातच भारतात सुबोध लेखन ाची ओळख झाली आणि अशोकन शिलालेखांनी त्या काळातील ऐतिहासिक पुनर्बांधणीचे ठोस पुरावे दिले.
- सिंधू संस्कृतीत ख्रिस्तपूर्व तिसऱ्या सहस्रकाच्या मध्यापर्यंत भारतात लेखनाची ओळख झाली असली तरी त्याचा उलगडा अद्याप झालेला नाही.
भौगोलिक घटक[संपादन]।
- पूर्व-ऐतिहासिक काळातील मानवी वसाहत आणि उपजीविकेच्या पद्धतीवर भौगोलिक घटकांचा प्रभाव पडतो.
भौगोलिक नियतिवाद[संपादन]।
- मानवी अधिवास आणि विशिष्ट संस्कृतीची वैशिष्ट्ये भौगोलिक परिस्थितीनुसार आकारास येतात हा सिद्धांत आहे.
- या सिद्धांतात सर्व पर्यावरणीय आणि भौगोलिक परिस्थिती आणि त्यांचा समाजाच्या सामाजिक-आर्थिक आणि राजकीय शक्तींवर होणारा परिणाम यांचा समावेश आहे.
- भौतिक वैशिष्ट्ये आणि एकेकाळी प्रतिकूल वाटू शकणारी पर्यावरणीय परिस्थिती नंतर संभाव्यतः उपयुक्त ठरू शकते.
पॅलिओलिथिक युगातील ग्रीओग्राफिक घटक
- पॅलिओलिथिक युगात होमो-सेपिअनची उत्क्रांती झाली.
- मानववंशशास्त्रीय अभ्यासानुसार असे दिसून आले आहे की अनेक शिकार-गोळा करणारे गट त्यांच्या भागातील नैसर्गिक संसाधनांच्या क्षमतेचा पूर्णपणे वापर करत नाहीत आणि ते आपल्या संसाधनांचे संरक्षण करण्यासाठी जाणीवपूर्वक पर्यावरणाच्या शोषणात समजूतदार संयम पाळतात.
- गंगेचे खोरे आणि केरळ किनारपट्टी वगळता बहुतेक पुरापाषाणकालीन स्थळे खडकाळ टेकड्या आणि लेण्यांच्या उपस्थितीमुळे संपूर्ण भारतात स्थित आहेत. उदा: बेलन व्हॅली (यूपी)।
- प्लाइस्टोसीन युगामुळे प्राणी आणि वनस्पतींची मुबलक वाढ होऊ शकली नाही म्हणून हा वयाचा माणूस अन्न शिकारी आणि अन्न गोळा करणारा होता. जवळच्या कुटुंबाच्या छोट्या छोट्या गटात तो राहत होता आणि भटके जीवन जगत होता.
- मध्य भारत आणि पूर्व घाटाच्या दक्षिण भागात ही ठिकाणे दाट आहेत कारण या भागात पुरेसा पाऊस झाला, बारमाही नद्या आहेत, वनस्पतींचे आच्छादन आहे आणि जंगली वनस्पती आणि प्राण्यांच्या अन्न संसाधनांनी समृद्ध आहेत.
- पुरापाषाण अवजारे/ पुरापाषाण संस्कृतीची मानवाने बनविलेल्या दगडी अवजारांच्या स्वरूपानुसार तसेच हवामान व वातावरणातील बदलानुसार तीन टप्प्यांत विभागणी करण्यात आली आहे.
- अप्पर पॅलिओलिथिक अवस्थेत लहान साधनांकडे कल होता तो पर्यावरणीय बदलांशी जुळवून घेतल्यामुळे असावा.
- कारखान्याची ठिकाणे सामान्यत: कच्च्या मालाच्या स्त्रोतांच्या जवळ असतात.
- मध्य पुरापाषाण युग म्हणजे खालच्या पुरापाषाण युगाच्या तुलनेत स्थळांचे वितरण विरळ आहे.
- याचे कारण म्हणजे मध्य पुरापाषाण संस्कृती चा विकास वरच्या प्लाइस्टोसीन या उत्तर अक्षांशातील तीव्र थंडी आणि हिमवृष्टीच्या काळात झाला. त्या काळी ग्लेशिएटेड प्रदेशांना लागून असलेल्या भागात तीव्र शुष्कता जाणवत असे.
- अप्पर-पॅलिओलिथिक वातावरणातील बदलांचा परिणाम मानवाच्या वितरण आणि राहणीमानावर झाला. त्यांपैकी काही खालीलप्रमाणे होते.
- उंच व उत्तर अक्षांशात अत्यंत थंड व शुष्क हवामान होते.
- ईशान्य भारतात मोठ्या प्रमाणात वाळवंटांची निर्मिती झाली
- पश्चिम भारतातील ड्रेनेज पॅटर्न जवळजवळ नामशेष झाला आणि नदीचे प्रवाह “पश्चिमेकडे” स्थलांतरित झाले.
- या काळात देशातील बहुतांश भागातील वनस्पतींचे आच्छादन कमी झाले.
- दक्षिण-पूर्व तामिळनाडू, सौराष्ट्र आणि कच्छच्या किनारी भागात समुद्राची पातळी कमी झाल्यामुळे क्वार्ट्ज आणि कार्बोनेट चे ढिगारे विकसित झाले.
- टर्मिनल प्लाइस्टोसीन दरम्यान नैऋत्य मॉन्सून कमकुवत झाला आणि समुद्राची पातळी कित्येक मीटरने कमी झाली.
- उत्तर भारतात, काश्मीरच्या वरच्या पुरापाषाण युगात सौम्य हवामानाची सुरुवात होते.
- थारमध्ये वाढत्या शुष्कतेमुळे वरच्या पुरापाषाणयुगीन स्थळांची संख्या आधीच्या टप्प्यापेक्षा कमी आहे.
- अप्पर पॅलिओलिथिक वस्त्यांमध्ये पाण्याच्या कायमस्वरूपी स्त्रोतांशी संबंधित असण्याचा एक वेगळा कल दिसून येतो.ग्राइंडिंग स्टोनचा वापर जंगली तांदळासारख्या वनस्पतींच्या पदार्थांवर प्रक्रिया करण्यासाठी झाला असावा.
- कडक व शुष्क हवामानामुळे वनस्पतींच्या जीवाश्मांमध्ये गवताळ प्रदेशाचे अस्तित्व दिसून येत असले तरी वनस्पती विरळ होत्या.
- मानवी लोकसंख्येला परकीय अन्नस्त्रोतांचा सामना करावा लागला आणि म्हणूनच कोरडवाहू आणि अर्धशुष्क प्रदेशात अप्पर पॅलिओलिथिक स्थळांची संख्या फारच मर्यादित आहे.
- राजस्थान, मध्य प्रदेश आणि महाराष्ट्रातील ४० हून अधिक ठिकाणी शहामृगाच्या अंड्याच्या कवचाचा एक महत्त्वाचा शोध लागला आहे, ज्यावरून असे दिसून येते की शुतुरमुर्ग हा कोरडवाहू हवामानाशी जुळवून घेणारा पक्षी वरच्या प्लाइस्टोसीनच्या उत्तरार्धात पश्चिम भारतात मोठ्या प्रमाणात वितरीत झाला होता.
मेसोलिथिक युगातील ग्रीओग्राफिक घटक
- होलोसीन युगाच्या प्रारंभाबरोबर मेसोलिथिक संस्कृतीसुरू झाली आणि ग्लोबल वॉर्मिंगचा परिणाम म्हणून बर्फाचे तुकडे वितळून नद्या तयार झाल्या.
- सुमारे १०,००० वर्षांपूर्वी प्लाइस्टोसीन भूवैज्ञानिक युगाने होलोसीनचा मार्ग तयार केला. या संक्रमणाच्या काळात अनेक पर्यावरणीय बदल झाले.
- तापमानात वाढ होऊन वातावरण उबदार व कोरडे तर काही ठिकाणी दमट झाले.
- उदाहरणार्थ, पश्चिम बंगालमधील बीरभानपूर च्या ठिकाणच्या मातीत शुष्कता वाढत असल्याचे दिसून येते.
- राजस्थानमधील डिडवाना येथील मिठाच्या तलावातील गाळ आणि परागकणांमुळे सध्या जास्त पाऊस पडण्याची शक्यता आहे.
- हवामानातील बदलांचा मानवी जीवनावर परिणाम झाला आणि प्राणी आणि वनस्पतींमध्ये बदल झाले.
- वाढलेल्या पावसामुळे वनस्पती आणि प्राण्यांचा विस्तार झाला.
- यामुळे माणसाला नवीन संसाधने उपलब्ध झाली आणि अशा प्रकारे मानव नवीन क्षेत्रांकडे वळला.
- अनुकूल हवामान, चांगला पाऊस, उबदार वातावरण आणि वाढलेली अन्नसुरक्षा यामुळे भटक्या विमुक्तांचे स्थलांतर कमी झाले.
- हा काळ वाढत्या लोकसंख्येने ओळखला जातो.
- जसजसे वातावरण अनुकूल होत गेले, तसतसे मेसोलिथिक मानवाने प्राण्यांचे संगोपन आणि उच्च तंत्रज्ञानाच्या मायक्रोलिथ साधनांनी सक्षम केलेले अंशतः स्थिर जीवन सुरू केले.
- जरी या काळातील मुख्य अर्थव्यवस्था शिकार आणि गोळा करण्यावर आधारित राहिली.
- तापमानात वाढ होऊन वातावरण उबदार व कोरडे तर काही ठिकाणी दमट झाले.
- अवजारे तयार करण्याच्या तंत्रज्ञानात बदल झाला आणि लहान दगडी अवजारे वापरली गेली माणूस प्रामुख्याने शिकार/गोळा करण्याच्या अवस्थेत होता परंतु शिकारीच्या पद्धतीत मोठ्या खेळाकडून लहान खेळाच्या शिकारीकडे आणि मासेमारी आणि कोंबड्याकडे बदल झाला.
- लोकांनी मायक्रोलिथ तयार करण्यास आणि वापरण्यास सुरवात केली.
- टूल किटमधील बदल पर्यावरणीय घटकांमधील बदलांशी संबंधित असावेत.
- हे भौतिक आणि पर्यावरणीय बदल रॉक पेंटिंगमध्येही प्रतिबिंबित होतात.
- भारतीय मेसोलिथिक कालखंडाचे एक वैशिष्ट्य म्हणजे वसाहतींचा नवीन पर्यावरणीय ठिकाणी प्रसार होय.
- हे सामान्यत: अधिक अनुकूल पर्यावरणीय परिस्थिती तसेच तांत्रिक नवकल्पनांमुळे लोकसंख्या वाढीचा परिणाम म्हणून पाहिले जाते.
- यातील अनेक प्रजाती मेसोलिथिक परंपरेच्या कालखंडात चालू राहिल्या. मात्र मेसोलिथिक परंपरेच्या श्रेणीत येणाऱ्या ठिकाणी रानटी मेंढ्या, रानटी शेळी, गांड, हत्ती, बायसन, कोल्हे, हिप्पो, सांबर, चिंकारा, खरगोश, साप, सरडे, उंदीर, कोंबडी आणि कासव अनुपस्थित आहेत.
- बदलत्या हवामान आणि पर्यावरणीय परिस्थितीच्या संदर्भात प्राण्यांचे स्वरूप आणि लुप्त होणे समजून घ्यावे लागेल.
- मेसोलिथिक लोक खालील वातावरणात राहत होते:
- मेसोलिथिक लोक किनारपट्टीचा प्रदेश, खडकांचे निवारा, सपाट डोंगरमाथ्यावर, नदी खोरे, तलावाच्या बाजू, वाळूचे ढिगारे, जलोढ विमाने यांचे वास्तव्य होते.
- वाळूचा ढिगारा:
- गुजरात व मारवाड येथे निरनिराळ्या आकाराचे शेकडो ढिगारे जलोढ मैदानावर आढळतात.
- त्यापैकी काही उथळ तलाव किंवा तलाव घेरलेले आहेत, जे जलचर मिळविण्याचे मोठे स्त्रोत होते.
- टेकड्या स्वत: काटेरी झुडपांनी झाकलेल्या होत्या; तेथे अनेक प्राणी राहात असत. साहजिकच वालुकामय डोंगरातील मेसोलिथिक रहिवाशांना त्यांचे अन्न गोळा करण्यात कोणतीही अडचण आली नाही.
- खडक-निवारा:
- मध्य भारतातील विंद्या, सातपुडा आणि कैमूर टेकड्या गुहा आणि खडकांनी खूप समृद्ध आहेत. त्यामुळे हे ठिकाण मेसोलिथिक लोकांचे आवडते होते.
- इतकेच नव्हे तर मध्य भारतात मुबलक पाऊस झाल्याने टेकड्यांवर घनदाट पानझडी जंगल वाढले होते, ज्यामुळे विविध प्रकारच्या वनस्पती आणि प्राणी उपलब्ध झाले होते.
- काही खडक-निवारा अच्युलियन काळाच्या सुरुवातीच्या काळात व्यापलेले आढळले आहेत.
- जलोढ़ मैदान:
- पुरापाषाण युगाच्या सुरुवातीपासून माणसाने पाण्याच्या उपलब्धतेमुळे आणि खेळांमुळे नदीकाठावर राहणे पसंत केले आहे.
- त्यामुळे जलोढ मैदानातून असंख्य मेसोलिथिक स्थळे सापडली आहेत. द.
- उदाहरणार्थ, बीरभानपूर हे ठिकाण पश्चिम बंगालमधील दामोदरच्या जलोढ मैदानात आहे.
- खडकाळ मैदान:
- दख्खनच्या पठारावर अनेक सूक्ष्मपाषाणयुगीन स्थळे आढळतात. काही डोंगरमाथ्यावर तर काही सपाट खडकाळ जमिनीवर आहेत.
- जिथे जवळ नदी नाही ते वगळता असे व्यवसाय हंगामी किंवा कमी कालावधीचे असावेत.
- सरोवर-किनारा:
- अलाहाबाद आणि प्रतापगड जिल्ह्याच्या गंगेच्या खोऱ्यात आढळणाऱ्या तलावांच्या किनाऱ्याभोवती काही मेसोलिथिक वस्त्या केंद्रित आहेत.
- वसाहतींना बहुधा संबंधित तलाव आणि सुपीक पाणलोट जमिनीच्या घनदाट जंगलातून अन्नपुरवठा होत असे.
- किनारपट्टीवरील पर्यावरण:
- किनाऱ्यांवरून, उदाहरणार्थ, साल्सेटल बेटावरून आणि तिरुनेवेल्ली जिल्ह्यातील टेरी टीलावरून मोठ्या संख्येने मायक्रोलिथिक स्थळे सापडली आहेत. येथील रहिवासी सागरी साधनसंपत्तीवर पोट भरत असत.
- मेसोलिथिक मध्ये दाब तंत्राद्वारे सूक्ष्म ब्लेड तयार केले जात असल्याने सुंदर बासरीयुक्त बेलनाकार किंवा शंक्वाकार कोर तसेच पातळ समांतर बाजूचे ब्लेड या ठिकाणी आढळतात.
नवपाषाण आणि चाल्कोलिथिक युगातील ग्रीओग्राफिक घटक
- जगाच्या बर्याच भागांमध्ये, होलोसीन सौम्य, उबदार, ओलसर हवामानाच्या प्रारंभाने चिन्हित केले गेले.
- अशा बदलांमुळे पाळीव प्राण्यांची क्षमता असलेल्या रानटी तृणधान्यांच्या नैसर्गिक अधिवास क्षेत्राचा विस्तार झाला असावा.
- नवपाषाण युगातील माणूस स्थायिक जीवन जगत असताना गावातील वस्त्या उदयास आल्या.
- काश्मीरमधील बुर्झाहोम येथे सापडलेल्या खड्ड्यांमुळे काश्मीर खोऱ्यात कमालीची थंडी असल्याचे दिसून येते.
- भात, गहू आणि बार्ली ची लागवड स्लॅश अँड बर्न पध्दतीने साधारणपणे निओलिथिक साइट्समध्ये आढळते.
- गॉर्डन चाइल्ड:
- प्लाइस्टोसीनच्या अखेरीस होणारे पर्यावरणीय बदल हे अन्नउत्पादनाला चालना देणारे होते, असे त्यांनी सुचवले.
- सुमारे १०,००० वर्षांपूर्वी उन्हाळ्यातील पावसाच्या उत्तरेकडील बदलामुळे पश्चिम आशियातील काही भागांतील वातावरण कोरडे झाले होते, असा त्यांचा युक्तिवाद होता.
- या निर्जंतुकीकरणामुळे नद्या आणि ओस सारख्या जलस्त्रोतांच्या जवळ माणसे, वनस्पती आणि प्राणी यांचे प्रमाण वाढले.
- या सक्तीच्या जवळीकीमुळे शेवटी मानव, वनस्पती आणि प्राणी यांच्यात अवलंबित्वाचे नवे संबंध निर्माण झाले, परिणामी पाळीव प्राणी झाले.
- लुईस आर. बिनफोर्ड:
- शेतीच्या उत्पत्तीच्या संदर्भात त्यांनी बाह्य जनसांख्यिकीय ताणावर भर दिला.
- प्लाइस्टोसीन युगाच्या अखेरीस, समुद्राच्या पातळीत वाढ झाल्यामुळे किनाऱ्यालगत राहणारे लोक कमी लोकसंख्येच्या अंतर्देशीय भागात स्थलांतरित झाले, असा त्यांचा युक्तिवाद होता.
- यामुळे अंतर्देशीय भागातील लोक-अन्न समतोल बिघडला आणि अन्नपुरवठा वाढविण्यासाठी नवीन धोरणांच्या शोधाला चालना मिळाली.
- शेतीच्या उत्पत्तीच्या संदर्भात त्यांनी बाह्य जनसांख्यिकीय ताणावर भर दिला.
- दक्षिण भारतीय नवपाषाण युगातील ठिकाणी शेतीचे फारसे पुरावे नाहीत.
- अधूनमधून जळालेल्या धान्याचा शोध आणि दगड पिसण्याचे अप्रत्यक्ष पुरावे, पण जनावरांच्या संगोपनाचा बोलबाला दिसून आला.
- या भागातील भूप्रदेश, माती आणि कोरडे हवामान यामुळे ते शेतीसाठी अयोग्य होते, असा युक्तिवाद.
- आरोग्य:
- मानवी हाडांच्या विश्लेषणावर आधारित पोषण आणि रोगाच्या अभ्यासानुसार असे दिसून आले आहे की शिकारी लोकांकडे उच्च-प्रथिनेयुक्त आहार होता, सुरुवातीच्या शेतकऱ्यांच्या तुलनेत अधिक वैविध्यपूर्ण, संतुलित आणि निरोगी होता, ज्यांच्या आहारात कार्बोहायड्रेटचे प्रमाण जास्त होते, तृणधान्ये किंवा मुळ पिकांवर भर दिला जातो.
- भटक्या जमातींपेक्षा गतिहीन लोक संसर्गजन्य रोग आणि साथीच्या रोगांना अधिक बळी पडतात.
- त्यामुळे सुरुवातीच्या शेतकरी वर्गाच्या हाडांमध्ये रोगाचा प्रादुर्भाव जास्त दिसून येतो.
- दंत आरोग्य:
- सुरुवातीच्या काळात दंत पोकळींचे प्रमाण कमी होते. या भागात उपलब्ध असलेल्या पिण्याच्या पाण्यात फ्लोराईडचे प्रमाण जास्त असल्याने हे घडले असावे.
- चाल्कोलिथिक संस्कृतीचे वैशिष्ट्य म्हणजे तांबे-पाषाणाची अवजारे आणि मोठ्या गावांच्या वस्त्यांचे अस्तित्व.
- विविध प्रकारची अन्नपिके घेतली गेली आणि त्याबरोबरच अधिक जनावरे पाळली गेली.
- पशुपालकशेतीलाही अधिक महत्त्व प्राप्त झाले. नाजूक कलात्मक आवृत्त्यांच्या कुंभारांची निर्मिती झाली.
युगानुयुगे मानवी अधिवासांची वाढ आणि अधोगती प्रामुख्याने भौगोलिक घटकांचा प्रभाव आहे. निसर्गाने घालून दिलेल्या मर्यादा मानवी अनुभव आणि तंत्रज्ञानाने जिंकल्या जाऊ शकतात.
नोट: पॅलिओलिथिक, मेसोलिथिक, निओलिथिक आणि चाल्कोलिथिक संस्कृतींच्या पुढील अध्यायांमध्ये भौगोलिक घटकांबद्दल उदाहरणांसह अधिक तपशील आहेत.